Information system development life cycle models Essay Example for Free

Information system development life cycle models Essay Health information managers must understand the components of information systems and how information systems affect the organization, individuals within the organization, and interested publics outside the organization. Information systems provide opportunities to improve internal operations, create competitive advantage in the marketplace, improve patient-care delivery, enhance research, and provide better service. Information system risk occurs when the systems are not well integrated, are poorly managed, or do not support the goals of the organization. In order to exploit information system opportunities and minimize threats and risks, a thorough understanding of information system components and how these relate to the organization is necessary. An information system is composed of a group of components (people, work processes, data, and information technologies) that interact through defined relationships to accomplish a goal. Information systems must be able to adapt to environmental change. A good example of a health-related information system is an order entry system. The goal of the system is to process physician orders. The system is composed of a group of components including people (nurses, physicians, unit secretaries, laboratory personnel), data, work processes, and information technologies. Each of these components interacts through defined relationships. fails to accommodate the environment or if the interactions among its component parts fail, the system becomes nonfunctional and disintegrates. Thus, a system must be composed of a group of components that: ï‚ · Interact through defined relationships ï‚ · Work toward accomplishing a goal ï‚ · Self-adapt and respond to environmental changes Figure 2-1 provides an example of the relationship of these characteristics. An information system is composed of a group of components (people, work processes, data, and information technologies) that interact through defined relationships to accomplish a goal. Information systems must be able to adapt to environmental change. A good example of a health-related information system is an order entry system. The goal of the system is to  process physician orders. The system is composed of a group of components including people (nurses, physicians, unit secretaries, laboratory personnel), data, work processes, and information technologies. Each of these components interacts through defined relationships The peoples enter orders in a predefined way through a data entry terminal (hardware) and through interaction with software. Through the predefined interactions between the hardware and software, the order is processed. The order entry system is self-adapting and able to accommodate environmental changes such as order volume. The example depicted in Figure 2-2 demonstrates the characteristics of a system as applied to an information system: component parts working in predefined relationships that can self-adapt to environmental changes to accomplish a common goal. As the bidirectional arrows depict in Figure 2-2, at any given time there is a potential three-way interaction between all system components. People interact or are affected by work practices, data, and information technologies. Work practices affect people and may be impacted by data availability and information technologies. Information technologies may affect work practices, people, and the input, processing, or dissemination of data. Thus, we see that information components are highly interrelated. Recognizing these interrelationships is very important, since a problem with one component will likely adversely impact all other components within an information system. When information system problems arise, it is crucial that all information system components and their relationships be examined System Elements Systems have three principal elements: inputs, processing mechanisms, and outputs. Figure 2-3 depicts their simple relationship. In the order entry example given previously, inputs include physician orders such as laboratory, radiology, or pharmacy orders that are entered in a computer terminal on the patient-care unit. The orders are subjected to several processing mechanisms that check their consistency and completeness before they are routed to the appropriate department. The output of the system is a requisition for a specific type of test, procedure, or pharmaceutical. In addition to inputs, processes, and outputs, most systems also have a  feedback loop. Feedback provided by the system influences future inputs. In the order entry example, feedback regarding nonavailability of an ordered drug in the pharmacy department inventory might be provided to the physician. In this case, the system might suggest what alternatives or substitutes are available Information System Components All definitions of an information system must embody the essence of the four system characteristics that were previously presented. Thus, an information system is a group of interrelated and self-adapting components working through defined relationships to collect, process, and disseminate data and information for accomplishment of specific organizational goals. The components of an information system should be broadly interpreted. For example, information system components should be viewed to include people, work procedures, data, and information technologies (Alter, 1992). Although organizational goals may not be specifically included in the components of an information system, they must be viewed as the driving force for the development, design, implementation, and evaluation of information systems. Each information system must be evaluated in terms of its contribution to meeting the goals of the organization Information System Types In Chapter 2, six types of information systems are discussed: transaction processing systems (TPS), management information systems (MIS), decision support systems (DSS), executive information systems (EIS), expert systems (ES), and office automation systems (OAS). Early systems in health care were principally transaction processing systems. These systems automated operational functions such as accounting, payroll, inventory, and admission/discharge systems. Later, other transaction systems, such as order entry, were added to the capabilities. Management information systems emerged in the late 1970s and gradually became more sophisticated during the 1980s. One factor influencing the growth of MIS during this period was the introduction of the national prospective payment (diagnostic-related groups or DRGs) system for Medicare patients. Because of DRG implementation, hospitals needed information systems that provided better filtered and formatted data for making managerial and strategic decisions. The  implementation of DRGs also revealed the weaknesses of current information systems in linking and integrating data. Weaknesses associated with the proliferation of stand-alone systems and the historical emphasis on financial systems became magnified during the 1980s coiera When the same kind of decision is made on a regular basis, it will require access to the same kind of data and may use the same knowledge. In these circumstances, one can develop a regular process or information system to accomplish the task. An information system could thus be anything from the routine way in which a clinician records patient details in a pocket notebook, the way a triage nurse assesses patients on arrival in an emergency department, through to a complex computer-based system that regulates payments for healthcare services. An information system is distinguished from other systems by its components, which include data and models. Recall from the last chapter that there are several different kinds of information model, including databases and knowledge bases. These different information components can be put together to create an information system. For example, consider a calculator that can store data and equations in its memory. The data store is the calculator’s database, and the equation store is its knowledge base. The input to the calculator becomes the equation to be solved, as well as the values of data to plug into the equation. The database communicates with the knowledge base using a simple communication channel within the device, and the output of the system is the value for the solved equation (Figure 3.6). There are many potential internal components that could be included within an information system, including a database, a knowledge base, an ontology, and decision procedures or rules of inference. The different components of an information system are connected together with input/output channels, which allow data to be shifted between the components as needed. A patient record system is a more complex example of an information system. Its purpose is to record data about particular patients in some formalized fashion to assist in the control Wager2009  An information system (IS) is an arrangement of information (data), processes, people, and information technology that interact to collect, process, store, and provide as output the information needed to support the organization (Whitten Bentley, 2005). Note that information technology is a component of every information system. Information technology is a contemporary term that describes the combination of computer technology (hardware and software) with data and telecommunications technology (data, image, and voice networks). Often in current management literature the terms information system and information technology are used interchangeably. 6.1.1 What Is a System?shortliffe Until now, we have referred informally to health information systems and computer systems. What do we mean when we refer to a system? In the most general sense, a system is an organized set of procedures for accomplishing a task. It is described in terms of (1) the problem to be solved; (2) the data and knowledge required to address the problem; and (3) the internal process for transforming the available input into the desired output (Figure 6.1). When we talk about systems in this book, we usually mean computer-based (or just computer) systems. A computer system combines both manual and automated processes; people and machines work in concert to manage and use information. A computer system has these components: ââ€"  Hardware: The physical equipment, including processing units (e.g., the central processing unit (CPU)), data-storage devices, comunication equipment, terminals, and printers ââ€"  Software: The computer programs that direct the hardware to carry out the automated processes—i.e., to respond to user requests and schedules, to process input data, to store some data for long periods, and to communicate informative results to the users; at times the software will prompt the users to perform manual processes System Design and Engineering in Health Care 235 ââ€"  Customers: The users who interact with the software and hardware of the system, issue requests, and use the results or forward them to others; there will be other users who are concerned with providing input, system operations, backup, and maintenance The role of a computer is, broadly speaking, the conversion of data into information. Every piece of data must be supplied by a person, by another computer system, or by data collection  equipment, as seen in patient monitoring (see Chapter 17). Information that is output is delivered to health care professionals or becomes input to another computer system. In other words, a medical computer system is a module within the overall health care delivery system. The overall health care system not only determines the need for the computer system (e.g., which data must be processed and which reports must be generated) but also the requirements for the system’s operation (e.g., the degree of reliability and responsiveness to requests for information). Acquisition and operation of a computer system has implications for the organization of an institution. Who controls the information? Who is responsible for the accuracy of the data? How will the system be financed? The installation of a computer system has sociological consequences as well. The introduction of a new system alters the work routines of health care workers. Furthermore, it may affect the traditional roles of health care workers and the existing relationships among groups of individuals—e.g., between physicians and nurses, between nurses and patients, and between physicians and patients. Important ethical and legal questions that arise include the confidentiality of patient information, the appropriate role of computers in patient care (especially in medical decision making), and the responsibility of developers and users for ensuring the correct operation of the system (see Chapter 10). Although the technical challenges in system development must be met, organizational factors are crucial determinants of the success of a computer system within the institution. These factors can differ greatly among institutions and can make the transfer of a well-functioning system to another site difficult. 6.1.2 Functions of a Computer System Computers have been used in every aspect of health care delivery, from the simple processing of business data, to the collection and interpretation of physiological data, to the education of physicians and nurses. Each chapter in Unit II of this book describes an important area for the application of computers in biomedicine. The unique characteristics of each problem area create special requirements for system builders to address. The motivation  for investing in these applications, however, is the computer’s ability to help health professionals in some aspect of information management. We identify eight topics that define the range of basic functions that may be provided by medical computer systems: 1. Data acquisition and presentation 2. Record keeping and access 3. Communication and integration of information 4. Surveillance 5. Information storage and retrieval 6. Data analysis 7. Decision support 8. Education .

Youth Fitness And Obesity Levels Physical Education Essay

Youth Fitness And Obesity Levels Physical Education Essay The figure of obesity children is rapidly increasing due to their unhealthy lifestyle and eating habit such as addicted to fast food, video games, and online games which occur in most of the children community nowadays. Unhealthy lifestyle caused most of the children dislike physical bodily movement and lack of physical fitness. A number of researchers involved in teaching physical classes always emphasize the relationship between decreasing of participation in physical activity towards increasing of health-related risks such as obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease (Domangue, 2009). We as physical teachers have to understand factors leading to children physical inactivity. It is very important to understand why youngsters withdraw themselves from physical activity as they get matured. In physical education classes, fitness testing act as a very crucial component which help to create awareness of health concerns on physical inactivity cases especially among children (Domangue, 20 09). Physical activity is defined as any type (mild, moderate, vigorous) of bodily movement for instance jumping rope, soccer, weight lifting, running, walking, taking stairs and others which can be our daily routine activities, recreational activities, as well as sport activities. Literally, health-related physical fitness means physical activity that involved mild or adverse physical body movement that contribute to their general body health (Karinharju, 2005). School-based physical class explains when participant is physically active, heart pumping rate increases and produces heavier breathing than normal breathing. Unfortunately, a lot of schools neglected physical education class and only focus on physical class. In fact, physical education and physical activity are equally important elements that contribute towards children health development. In Silverman et.al. (2008) paper stated youth fitness testing was designed to embarrass those children who are less capable in physical activity. Those children who cannot perform well especially those obese children will be insulted by their peers and eventually they will withdraw themselves from involving in physical activity. We should not turn children down in physical activity by right as a school teacher we should help children to cultivate interest in physical activity. For instance, a plump children will feel embarrass while doing stretching. They might unable to reach the desired point and will be laughed by their peers. Girls might not like to play soccer, running around the field fighting for a ball. They might prefer jumping rope. So while designing fitness testing, more consideration should be taken such as gender, body size and fitness. As a physical teacher, we should help students to learn more about fitness and physical activity in order to promote positive attitudes on physical activity. I further belief if fitness testing was used in positive and appropriate ways it will enhance students physical educational experience as well as promote good attitudes and interest. There is few discussion on fitness testing has been done in recent years and the discussions were basically taken in three forms. First, some researchers suggest discontinuing school-based youth fitness testing in physical education program. Because school teachers are more focus on students activity performance instead of health-related fitness (Silverman, 2008; Rowland, 1995; Corbin et al., 1995). Second, researchers suggested that school-based physical classes should emphasize on educational aspects. Tests and teaching should carried out together to help to improve students fitness and knowledge (Silverman, 2008; Cale Harris, 2002; Corbin Pangrazi, 1993). Lastly, thorough examination of student fitness achievement testing is needed before designing and making decision on the future of physical class context and tests. (Silverman, 2008; Cale et al., 2007; Corbin et al., 1995; Keating Silverman, 2004). To be physically fit, one has to be physically active. Definition for physical fitness is an adaptive state that varies with the individuals growth and maturity status and with habitual activity and lifestyle (Domangue, 2009; Malina, Bouchard Bar-Or, 2004). Furthermore, physical fitness can be categorized into two categories which is health-related fitness and performance-related fitness. Health-related fitness is fitness that everyone needs which contributes to maintain and improve health status of our body. Performance-related fitness refers to skilled athletes or performers who need to be success or excel in their performance in sports activities. Basically, health-related fitness is assessed by measuring cardiovascular fitness, flexibility, muscular endurance, strength, and body fat content or body mass index (BMI) (Hale, 2005; Corbin, 2005). Rowland, 1995 drew a conclusion that physical teachers should not stop fitness testing, but should implement fitness tests in the physical education curriculum. Children and adults have different used of fitness test. So, while planning physical activities, this should be taken in concern. Children cannot decide whether to participate in fitness testing or how to use the results of those physical assessments. Whereas, adults are able to decide and choose whether to use fitness testing as a summative assessment to check their current health-related fitness levels of how fit they are at the period of time or as formative assessment to continuously assess health-related fitness level in order to modify fitness program as part of program planning. Adults who decided to go for either formal (with trainers) or informal training (self-training) already ready and have some commitment to do physical activity. But children do not have such commitment and do not know how to make decision. There fore, youth fitness testing can have opposite result if it is not perform appropriately, and will have consequences to develop negative attitude and patterns of physical activity among children. But, youth fitness testing should play an important role in school physical education setting in order to enhance students fitness (Silverman, 2008; Bar-Or, 1993; Cale Harris, 2002; Whitehead, Pemberton Corbin, 1990), and implementation of fitness testing should be examined often to prevent any deviation that will result in the misuse of fitness tests (Silverman, 2008). In order to have positive impact of physical testing in school, silverman has suggested some guidelines to implement a positive impact fitness test. First, youth fitness testing should be integrated as a part of fitness instruction in curriculum. Although assessment is important goal of teaching but without a solid curriculum it is merely testing (Stewart, Elliot, Boyce Block, 2005). Second, fitness testing result should be used by teachers to assess their fitness instruction and enhance students learning (Corbin, 1981) while physical classes. Long-term and short-term outcomes of fitness testing of children should be taken into concern by teachers and curriculum planners planning for future activities. Third, the point of having physical class is for students to improve their body fitness and towards meeting their healthy zone standard. We should teach students not to assume that fitness testing will automatically increase their physical activity levels but it is just to test their body fitness. It is important to understand their body fitness and help to design future activities. If fitness testing was used appropriately and used as an educational tool, it has the potential to promote physical activity and also help to improve health-related fitness. In many schools in Malaysia, students are only required to be tested on fitness test once in a year. Compare to academic tests physical test is far lesser. During fitness tests, Instructional time spent on fitness testing should not be ignored. Without positively increasing youngsters physical activity levels and health-related fitness does not make sound use of fitness tests. Health-related fitness testing should be carried out in school, and it is important to include both physical activity and also health-related fitness in physical education class so that student will able to understand the difference and complementary nature of the concepts (Silverman, 2008). Health-related fitness has to be taught as part of curriculum so that student able to understand the concept and the purpose of the test. Health-related fitness testing also can be used as a tool to examine concepts and components of health-related fitness and physical activity. For example, while teacher introducing the sit-up test, teacher can discuss on the anatomy of the body and the function of the muscles involved and how the body perform the activity and how to improve their strength and endurance. Provide important information and knowledge while doing the activity, student can understand better the purpose of having each test and also prevent to get injured. Without proper knowledge, stu dents are more tend to get injured, due to lack of knowledge of proper posture undergoing particular activity. Teacher has to educate students the correct posture and way to perform those activity to protect our body muscle and anatomy. Lacking important knowledge might influence students performance, motivation and interest as well. Eventually, they will cultivate negative attitude and their bad experiences in physical education will influence their attitudes towards future assessment and physical activity and eventually cause them to withdraw from physical activity. Another reason why teaching both health-related fitness and physical activity is important, because the current examination of physical activity assessment program may mislead students into thinking that regular participation in any mild to moderate physical activity for 30-60 minutes is sufficient to maintain their health. NASPE recommends those children aged 5 to 12 years should be physically active for at least 60 minutes to several hours of per day (Domangue, 2009). As children get matured, the recommended duration for physical activity varies. Adolescents need lesser hour to be physically active compare to children. They need only 30-60 minutes daily (Yesalonia, 2009). Unfortunately, many school-aged students have too little opportunity to participate in these recommended physical activities during school hour. In this situation, students are required to balance their physical activity levels outside the school as extra-curriculum. Outside the regular school hours, many children could be physically active in sedentary activities such as homework, computers and video-games which children only required to sit on chair. This can affect activity levels of school-aged children. Perhaps the most important time for children to be active is after school is between three and six p.m. But often children nowadays are not, they will rather spend time on sedentary activities or their academic curriculum. Parents have press more on their academic rather than their physical achievements and also safety issues parents stop letting children to involve in physical activities. . As a school teacher, we should encourage parents to allow their children to be physically active instead of filling all those active hours with tuitions, piano classes and homework. Children can have opportunity to be active after school hours by participating in extra-curricular activity programs, such as basket ball, soccer, as well as community-based a ctivity programs. Remember, physical activity and health-related fitness is both equally important. We should not too emphasize on physical achievement and ignore the basic understanding on health-related fitness. Through the health-related fitness testing, teacher is responsible to educate students the purpose of participating in a variety of physical activity form and methods to improve corresponding health-related fitness components as well as the recommended duration in performing physical activity. Health-related fitness testing is an excellent context to teach students to examine on both health-related fitness and physical activity concept. Students can understand health-related fitness not only improve their health level (Silverman, 2008; Simons-Morton et al., 1988) but also their cognitive skills (Hillman, Castelli, Buck 2005). School-based physical classes may not done an adequate job in teaching students on the importance of health-related fitness or have taught separately with physical activity. If health-related fitness testing is done separately, there is no way that student will develop the knowledge that can be developed from an understanding of both health-related fitness and physical activity assessment. Teacher should teach assessment skills to students. If student able to use fitness test for self-assessment, they are able to use the understanding of health-related fitness learned during physical class and able to plan their own physical activity programs according to their desired target. Students were taught that fitness testing can be used as formative assessment to develop and modify their physical activity routines to help them have the knowledge to start an appropriate level. Assessment skills also able to help students keep participating in physical activity if they know what their expected goal is. The formative testing experience will reinforce fitness gains and also enhance additional motivation for students to continue involved in physical activity (Silverman, 2008). Students learn to compare the scores with their previous performance and to design a suitable goals and activity according to their body level. Applications of appropriate use of fitness tests taught in clas s equip students with the knowledge and skills to participate and to select appropriate physical activity and help them to perform self-assessment. To incorporating health-related fitness assessment into fitness education, teacher should teach students the purpose of doing the fitness test or other fitness-based activity. Student should understand the instructional content before performing the test. Then, fitness testing should be formative. Teacher should plan the educational experience to use fitness testing results to design future activity for students while also teaching students that health-related fitness can be improved and assessment is integral to that process. Another way is to conduct fitness education by infusing fitness lessons into curriculum. This can be done by relating each activity done to fitness. So, student will have better understanding on how those activities related and improve their body fitness, why that aspect of fitness is important. With that knowledge, students are able to understand and eventually improve their performance on that activity. For example, students participate in school gymnasium sh ould know that gymnasium activity are exercising their heart and will help make them healthy and good for their heart. They should know the health-related fitness component is called aerobic fitness and helps to prevent heart disease. With this understanding, students were being more motivated on physical activity. The use of fitness test helps students to understand health-related fitness and how testing can be used to improve and enhance fitness. Infusing health-related fitness test in physical education can increase student knowledge, attitudes and fitness. In primary schools students, teacher will help students in assessment and plan their future physical activity, but in secondary school, after fitness testing, students could provide an analysis of their strengths and weaknesses and develop a fitness program suitable to them. Teacher could use variety of teaching strategies such as reciprocal teaching, self-check against predetermined rubrics and assessments such as using the analysis and plan for providing feedback to the students (Silverman, 2008) to help students to improve and also to monitor their program. Planning and assessment of physical activity is necessary in order to improve students learning experience and to meet the goals of instructions (Silverman, 2008). Without assessment, we are unable to know our standard and level. Teachers act as a reflection as a form of assessment to assess fitness education the result of the assessment is for the teacher to do self-assessment and reflect on the lesson. Teacher means act as a problem solvers (i.e., design the content or lesson to achieve goal and to assess achievement of the goal, and whether there are other better ways to enhance instruction). Second step is student learning. Fitness testing result is to examine student learning from multiple perspectives (increase various component of health-related fitness, increases in physical activity, attitude toward fitness and physical activity). This health-related fitness test may tell how fit students are, ignoring the fitness improvement, physical activity and attitude development. Next is the appropriate use of accountability for assessing fitness education. Principals should be aware that fitness testing may lead negative consequences. Always ensure that the test is use appropriately and must be used within the context and perform a complete fitness education program if we want students to live in physically active lives. Assessment and accountability program should design appropriately and examine from time to time being as one aspect of student assessment and physical grading. As a school physical education teacher, I strongly believe that health-related fitness tests that are used in an appropriate educational manner can be a useful tool to enhance student learning and also health level. Although there is wide variation in the capabilities of students, the main purpose of fitness instruction should be that every student can work towards being fit and reach healthy level. While designing the test, physical class teachers should consider those less capability students and help them to improve by educating health-related fitness. The main focus on physical education should be on evolving fitness process, students participation regardless on performance and result achieved. A well-planned physical fitness program with a positive classroom environment is very crucial to yield positive attitude, interest and motivation of students on physical activity especially for those less capability. Teachers should put more efforts on those students who may feel fitness t esting is an embarrassment. Silverman (2008) suggested that assessment methods can move from group administration of test to pairs testing or self-assess. It can help to utilize time better, develop self-assessment skills and less embarrassing for most students. In a nutshell, I agree to infuse health-related fitness in physical class. Both physical activity and health-related fitness is equaled important to enhance body fitness and health. In order to have positive outcome, physical educator should designed an appropriate program for students in order to improve their fitness and encourage them to participate in physical activity and not to emphasize on performance achieved. Educators have to alert those students who are less capable in physical activities and encourage them, support them to involve in physical activity and educate them on health-related fitness. So that they can understand why they need to do that particular activity and what is the benefits of doing that. Educators should stress more on health-related fitness rather than performance-related fitness. Cale, L., Harris, J. (2002). National testing for children: Issues, concerns, and alternatives. British Journal of Teaching Physical Education, 33 (1), 32-34. Cale, L., Harris, J., Chen, M.H. (2007). More than 10 years after The horse is deadà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦: Surely it must be time to dismount?! Pediatric Exercise Sciences, 19, 115-131. Corbin, C.B. (1981). First things first but dont stop there. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 52(1), 36-38. Corbin, C.B. (2005). Keynote address: Promoting active living: The key to shaping up for a lifetime. Vermont Association of Health, Physical Education, Dance, and Recreation Fall Conference. November, 2005. Killington, Vermont. Corbin, C.B., Pangrazi, R.P. (1993). Physical fitness: Questions teachers ask. Journal of Physical Education, Research and Dance, 64 (7), 14-19. Corbin, C.B., Pangrazi, R.P., Welk, G.L. (1995). A response to The horse is dead: Lets dismount. Pediatric Exercise Science, 7, 347-351. Domangue, E.A. (2009). A critical examination into motivation and gender in youth physical fitness testing (Doctoral dissertation), Louisiana State University, LA. Hale, D. (2005). An invitation to health. (11th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc. Hillman, C.H., Castelli, D.M., Buck, S.M. (2005). Aerobic fitness and neurocognitive function in healthy preadolescent children. Medicine Science in Sports Exercise, 37, 1967-1974. Karinharju, K (2005). Physical fitness and its testing in adults with intellectual disability. (Master dissertation), University of Jyvaskyla, Finland. Keating, X.D., Silverman, S. (2004). Teachers use of fitness tests in school-based physical education programs. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 8, 145-165. Malina, R.M., Bouchard, C., Bar-Or, O. (2004). Growth, maturation, and physical activity. (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Rowland, T.W. (1995). The horse is dead; Lets dismount. Pediatric Exercise Science, 7, 117-120. Silverman, S., Keating, X.D., Phillips, S.R. (2008). A lasting impression: A pedagogical perspective on youth fitness testing. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 12: 146-166 Simons-Morton, B.G., Parcel, G.S., OHara, N.M., Blair, S.N., Pate, R.R. (1988). Health-related physical fitness in childhood: status and recommendations. Annual Review of Public Health, 9, 403-425. Yesalonia, S. (2009). Understanding school students perspectives regarding physical activity and fitness (Doctoral dissertation), Available from Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3352936)

The Life of William Shakespeare Essay examples -- Shakespeare

William Shakespeare was a very talented man known for his various works of literature. His works include poems, plays, and sonnets. His works are then broken down into tragedies, comedies, and histories. Shakespeare left this world centuries ago, but his writings continue to live throughout the world today. He has greatly impacted the world of literature and his existence will forever be remembered. In 1564, William Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon (Hazell 32). It seems that Shakespeare’s career began around the year 1592. This was a tough time for playwrights and actors. There was an outbreak of the bubonic plague which caused concerns for those wanting to watch because of being surrounded by those potentially carrying the disease, thus making it hard for the playwrights and actors to find work (â€Å"William Shakespeare.† 653-654). Not only was disease an obstacle William Shakespeare had to overcome in his work, he was also forced to face hampering from religious aspects as well. Leaders in the Puritan community looked down upon plays, acting, and other things of that nature. These authorities thought that these activities would sway people from focusing on the importance of practicing their religion. Plays and such were not allowed to be performed while in the city of London. They were banned. Eventually, despite all the obstructions, plays and theater came to be a popular thing although still forced outside the city (â€Å"The Changing Status...†). After overcoming the troubles of becoming an actor and a playwright, William Shakespeare has become well renowned. His works reach to people all around the world despite the language barriers and different races and cultures. For centuries, the popularity of his work... ... Co., 1919. 5. Print. Ellis, Jessica. â€Å"What are Shakespeare’s Comedies?† wiseGEEK. Conjecture Corp., 2003. Web. 31 Jan. 2012. Frye, Roland Mushat. Shakespeare’s Life and Times. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967. 16. Print. Hazell, Rebecca. Heroes: Great Men Through the Ages. New York: Abbeville Press, N.d. 32. Print. McMillan, Eric. â€Å"Who Was the Greatest of All Writers?† The Greatest Authors of All Time. N.p. 2011. Web. 26 Jan. 2012. â€Å"Race – Introduction.† Shakespearean Criticism. eNotes.com. Gale Cengage, 2006. Web. 31 Jan. 2012. Schwartz, Debora B. â€Å"Shakespeare’s Plays: The Histories.† ENGL 339. N.p. 2002. Web. 31 Jan. 2012. â€Å"The Changing Status of Theater.† About.Com.Shakespeare. The New York Times Co., 2012. Web. 31 Jan. 2012. â€Å"William Shakespeare.† Encyclopedia Americana. Vol. 24. Danbury, CT: Grolier Inc., 1994. 652-654; 656. Print.

The Common Problem of Absenteeism in the Field of Education Essay

The Common Problem of Absenteeism in the Field of Education Absenteeism is a common problem encountered by teachers and others who work in the field of education. There are many reasons why some children fall into a pattern of repeated absence from school. In a number of cases, willful absence can be traced to an alienation from schooling due to poor achievement, family circumstances or behavioral causes. In some cases, parents or children simply defy the requirement to participate. This area is one in which the need for partnership between school and family is greatest. While many schools provide successful alternative programs or absenteeism intervention strategies, there will be cases where, despite the best efforts of schools and parents, the children stay away. It is clear that any unauthorized absence is of concern because of the valuable educational time which is lost and because the absence of some children is associated with inappropriate behavior in the community. Different types of absenteeism will be discussed during this essay bu t the main focus will be directed at truancy in which the causes and remedies will be evaluated. The different types of absenteeism is truancy, exclusion, school closure, school phobia or other absences due to illness or bad behavior (teachers sending pupils out of class due to poor behavior). Although children who are sent outside the class are not entirely absent from the school, this can be identified as absence as they are not participating in class. It seems that none of the various Education Acts defines truancy and nor is this lack supplied the case laws. Nor indeed have the various researchers agreed a definition. Must every child who is absent from school for whatever be cla... ...that all of them are valid. Remedies that involve the parents seem to be extremely effective as the parent?s awareness can surely play a big part in combating the problem as usually a lot of parents are unaware of their children?s school life. It is also obvious that if the school improves the atmosphere and teaching methods than the pupils are more likely to want to go to school. A good teacher ? pupil relationship is also important and can ensure better school attendance Truancy is the first sign of trouble and the first indicator that a young person is giving up and losing his or her way. When pupils start skipping school than they are telling their parent?s, school officials and the community at large that they are in trouble and need help if they are to move forward in life. Bibliography: Tyerman, Maurice J. Truancy. U of Chicago Press, 1984.

Milgram study

The world came to know about the kind of research that Stanley Milgram had just started to explore in 1963 when he started to make his experiments known to the public. One of the major consequences of his studies was the development and establishment of ethics in research especially those involving human subjects. However, that became more like a serendipitous outcome of an entirely different pursuit in studying behavior.What Milgram set out to study was the issue of obedience in retrospect of the holocaust and the probable reasons that many people then under the Nazi regime followed orders that were inhuman or barbaric. It was approximately around the investigation of Adolf Eichmann who manned the Gestapo persecutions during the said Holocaust; this person had to face charges of genocide which was held in Jerusalem (Milgram, 1963).The experiment involved what Milgram called the learner, the teacher and the experimenter who authorized the course and duration of the study. The learner is the person who actually was employed to help the experiment (assumingly with the consent and guidance of Milgram). The â€Å"naà ¯ve† or innocent person (the learner) will work with the same group of people but one who was actually a good actor. The teachers will conduct the tasks assigned to him about the memory exercise he was to supervise which was the learner will be able to accomplish; later an evaluation takes place of what that person (the learner) may have retained. If the learner commits mistakes, varied or graduated shocks were to be applied with matching painful and agonizing sounds that can be heard (Morris & Maisto, 1999).The experiment showed that despite attempts by the learner to communicate to the teacher/volunteer that the painful shocks should be stopped, whenever the experimenter (e.g. Milgram) was asked about stopping the treatment and the latter affirming that this was a part of the experiment, an overwhelming approximately 65% continued administeri ng the shocks. What was even astounding was that when the person playacting as if in sheer agony and even almost dying or breathless, the teacher continued to administer these shocks which were increasing in intensity (Morris & Maisto, 1999).What were the implications of the study? An important lesson could be gaining insight as to people’s reasons why they may subject other people who were innocent to these painful episodes. Like the SS men of Eichmann during the captivity of the Jews in the early 40s, men who were deeply religious to a large degree, obey the orders despite what have been obvious clashes of understanding (Morris & Maisto, 1999). Authority figures cannot be denied as people who ought to be listened. Factors for a brief view on the implications point to people’s previous upbringing or how they were inculcated on by caregivers and figures who acted as people in authority and the value of obedience.Works cited:Milgram, Stanley. Behavioral study of obedien ce. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, (1963). 67, 371-378.Morris, Charles & Albert A. Maisto. Understanding    psychology, 4th ed. Prentice hall, Inc. USA. (1999).

Positive Impact of Woman Labor in Economic Growth Essay

Labor – one of the factors of production and serves as the source of competitive advantage of various countries in attracting foreign investors. Alongside with labor is the concept of productivity which is the largest single component of economic growth especially for those labor intensive countries. Therefore, government of various countries around the globe a lot enough focus on maintaining the equilibrium condition of their labor market in order to achieve impressive economic growth. But with the advent of globalization, the demand for laborers extended up to such point wherein the labor market has to accommodate woman on the pool of labor. But why is that so? Are there any benefits that can be derived from hiring a woman on a certain business firm? This paper aims to identify the effects of woman’s entrance to labor pool to economic growth as well as the factor/s that contributed in order for such event to occur in the labor market. Relationship of Woman Labor and Economic Growth   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Gender bias in labor force is a large factor to some of the countries especially in the Middle East wherein the labor pool is still being dominated by men and discrimination and injustices to women is very much accepted into their society. But there are still those liberal countries that welcome the entrance of women to labor force. Like for instance in UK, women serve as one of the source of higher productivity and economic growth (Walby, 2002). For the past decades, UK is relatively stable in terms of market success due to the improvement of the skills of their labor force and women made a significant contribution for the attainment of such impressive productivity and high performance. The characteristics of women like being keen to details and always want to take their time in order to attain the highest possible quality improved the efficiency and effectiveness of UK’s labor force.   Furthermore, though women are physically weak as compared to men, they are more productive when it comes to making planning and strategies on how to solve various problems concerning the welfare of the company or a business firms. This distinct characteristic of women serves as an avenue towards the improvement of the entire labor pool of UK for the past years. Moreover, it was identified that deficit in the labor force in the UK market provided a room for the market system to accept the entrance of women into the labor force despite of the fact that women have fewer educational qualifications than men; but this draw back on women was already settled by the present young women. Women nowadays compete at par with men in terms of attaining higher positions in the corporate world as they start to attain higher academic degrees. With this increase on productivity of labor force in UK industries started to generate more income and becomes more profitable. Moreover, domestic production is deemed to boost by the time skilled women entered the labor force of UK. In this regard, it is clear that the entry of women to labor force did provide positive impacts on the economic growth of the country. This insight do not suggest that men are already less efficient as compared to women, the point is, with the entry of women in the labor pool, the efficiency and effectiveness of men is further improved by the women. But with regards to physical productivity, still, men are still the one who dominates in the said area. Moreover, with the entrance of women in the labor force, flexibility of the labor pool improves since there were some tasks that only women can perform or requires the experiences of a woman. As a result, the productivity of the labor forces increase and so with the entire economy. At the end of the day, the entrance of women to labor force increases the volume of domestic production as more laborers can now be hired by domestic and foreign firms; as well as the improvement on the quality of the products being produced in the economy due to the innate characteristics of women like their keen attention to details provides lesser rooms for mistakes or errors. Moreover, those increases in the domestic production and higher quality of products will make the GDP of the country to increase which in return will improve the economic and social welfare of every laborers in the market. References Walby, S. (2002). The Impact of Women’s Position in the Labor Market on Pay and Implications for UK Productivity. Retrieved March 28, 2008, from http://www.womenandequalityunit.gov.uk/publications/weu_pay_and_productivity.pdf

Compare and Contrast Key Perspectives in Psychology Essay

Psychology literally means the study of the mind, translated from Ancient Greek as psyche, meaning â€Å"mind† or â€Å"soul† and logia, meaning â€Å"study†. The most accurate description of psychology is that it is the science of mind and behaviour (Collin et al, 2011). Psychology evolved from philosophy and can be dated back to the time of Ancient Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle (325 BCE). Studying the nature of subjects such as the memory, thoughts and the consciousness, did not make psychology a standalone science, instead it was viewed as a form of philosophical speculations. Psychology became a separate, scientific discipline in the late 19th century. The world’s first experimental laboratory of psychology was founded in 1879 by Wundt. As many philosophers and scientists tried to explain the inner world of a person (psyche) since ancient times, many key perspectives of modern psychology appeared as a result. These key perspectives include: Psychodynamic, Behavioural, Cognitive, Humanistic, Evolutionary, Biological and Cross-Cultural (Cherry, 2014). This essay will explore and compare two of these perspectives, Behaviourism and Psychodynamic, and their influence on modern psychology. The psychodynamic approach is based on the theories of Freud, Adler, Erikson and Jung. Freud was the founder of psychoanalysis. Together with Breuer, Freud developed psychological treatment, known as talking therapies, believing that many forms of mental illness, such as: irrational fears, hysteria, anxiety and imagined pains, were the results of a traumatic experience acquired by the patient in the past. Freud believed that people store their ideas, memories and impulses in the unconscious when they become too overwhelming for the conscious mind to bear, this is known as repression. He believed that the conscious mind is just the surface (likening it to an iceberg) of a complex psychic realm, which included the ego, superego and id. The id is driven only by the fulfilment of basic drives, for example; food, comfort, warmth and sex, and obeys the Pleasure Principle, meaning that each impulse must be gratified immediately. The ego, one the other hand, accepts the Reality Principle, which says we cannot have everything we desire. The ego negotiates with the id and may be compared to the moderator between id and superego (Collin et al, page.111). The  superego is the internal voice, influenced by our parents and the society’s moral code, it is a judging voice of our conscience, which tells us what we should and should not do, and may often become the source of guilt and shame (Collin et al, 2011, pp.94-99). In Freud’s opinion, the difference between conscious and unconscious thoughts creates psychic tension, and that this is how many mental problems originate. Repressed and unprocessed emotions build up and then become revealed in anger, depression, anxiety, alcohol abuse and so on. These problems can be helped by releasing them and confronting them during the process of psychoanalysis. Freud tried to free his patients from repressed memories and ease their mental pain. Dream Analysis was a method which in Freud’s opinion allowed to access and encode messages sent by the unconscious. Despite all of this, even Breuer criticised Freud for concentrating too much on the sexual origins of neuroses (Collin et al, 2011, p.95). The humanistic approach criticised psychodynamics of excluding the thought of free will (McLeod, 2007). Furthermore, today Freud’s interpretation of dreams appears unreasonable to many. In spite of all the criticisms, many accept that Freud highlighted the importance of childhood experiences and his methods inspired many famous psychotherapists to develop new types of treatment. One example includes Virginia Satire, who stresses the importance of the family environment (Collin et al, 2011, pp.146-147). Freud also introduced the idea of defence mechanisms which is widely used today in different therapies. Denial, repression and displacement are some examples of defence mechanisms (Cherry, 2014). In addition, psychodynamics also made the case study method popular in psychology. One of Freud’s eminent theories was about the Oedipus Complex. Freud used his case study known as ‘Little Hans’ to support this theory. Hans was 5 years old at the time and had a phobia of horses. Hans’ father, who was Freud’s friend, wanted Freud to cure Hans from his phobia. Freud was mostly interested in how the phobia was triggered and how it could be linked to his idea of the Oedipus Complex. By analysing Hans’ dreams, Freud ruled out that they boy’s phobia of horses was caused through the fear of being castrated by his father because he had sexual desires for his mother. Freud advised Hans’ father to reassure his son that he would not castrate him and eventually the boy’s phobia resolved. Despite curing Han’s phobia, Freud’s emphasis on the phobia being caused by an underlying fear of his father seems farfetched,  especially when it is known that Hans witnessed how a horse died on the street, an event which traumatised him. This would seem a more plausible reason for the child’s horse phobia, but instead Freud emphasised that this case study was a perfect example of the Oedipus Complex. In addition, Freud didn’t work directly with Hans, almost all of his investigation of the case and all ‘therapeutic work’ occurred through correspondence with Hans’ father, who was Freud’s admirer and friend. (McLeod, 2008). Therefore, this doubts the authenticity of the study. Later, it became obvious that Freud sometimes distorted his patients’ case histories to fit with his theories (Sulloway, 1991). In 1960, Beck exposed the weaknesses of traditional psychoanalysis and proposed cognitive therapy as he could not find any reliable studies proving the success rates of psychoanalysis – only anecdotal evidence of case reports. Furthermore, many psychoanalysts objected scientific examination (Collin et al, 2011, pp.175-177), which brings up the contrasting approach of behaviourism. Behaviourism is based on the works of Darwin, Thorndike, Watson, Pavlov and Skinner. The behaviourism approach suggested that psychology should be treated as a science and must be based on observations, research and experiments (Collin et al, 2011). Is it possible to measure behaviour? Behaviourism stated that it is. In order to do this, behaviourists experimented firstly on animals. Therefore, physiology has had a lot of influence on this approach. In 1890 Pavlov, developed the concept of classical conditioning (Collin et al, 2011). Pavlov introduced such terms as ‘unconditioned’ and ‘conditioned reflex’, ‘response’ and ‘stimulus’ in physiology and psychology. Later some behaviourists switched to experimenting on humans. Yet, it cannot be said that these early experiments on humans were very ethical. With this in mind, one example is that of a case study known as ‘Little Albert’, carried out by Watson (1920), on a nine month old baby, ‘Albert B’. Today his method would arguably be considered unethical and even cruel. However, Watson thought that the experiment was a logical continuation of previous animal studies. The aim of Watson’s experiment was to find out if it was possible to teach an infant to fear an animal by repeatedly presenting it at the same time with a loud, frightening noise, or a stimulus. Watson put the baby on a mattress and then showed him  a dog, a rat, a rabbit and a monkey. Albert showed no fear and his natural instinct was to touch the animals. In this case, the animals were used as a neutral stimulus. In Watson’s opinion, this was a baseline, from which he could measure any change in Albert’s behaviour. Then, Watson started to frighten the child with a loud noise, an unconditioned stimulus, by striking a metal bar with a hammer. Watson then paired the sighting of an animal with a frightening noise, and as a result, each time Albert saw an animal he burst into tears, because his n atural response to the noise – fear and distress – had now become associated with animals. All that was very good from the point of view of Pavlov’s classical conditioning, however today it may be argued that Watson’s experimentation method was unethical. Nevertheless, Watson’s experiment demonstrated that human emotions are susceptible to classical conditioning. This was his new input on Pavlov’s theory, because previous stimulus-response experiments had focused on studying behaviour, not emotions. Later, Skinner published ‘The Behaviour of Organisms’ (1938) and developed the concept of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a form of conditioning in which the outcome depends upon an animal operating upon its environment, such as pressing a lever to obtain food (Collin et al, 2011, p.342). Skinner carried out multiple experiments on animals, studying satisfaction and discomfort. He used positive and negative reinforcers, working with rats and pigeons as well as primary and secondary reinforcers (Jarvis and Russell, 2002). Through his experiments, Skinner proved that behaviour is often shaped not by a preceding stimulus, how it was stated previously in classical conditioning, but instead by the consequences of that behaviour (Collin et al, 2011, p.59). Today, Skinner’s ideas are used in workplace psychology, for example they influenced the method of rewards and incentives. The attractiveness of the reinforcer (incentive) can increase the productivity of workers and it is widely used in different industries. Similarly, operant conditioning has an application in today’s clinical psychology. For example, in the study of depression. Also, self-harming addictions are explained in terms of operant conditioning, which is now often called behaviour modification. Behaviour modification is used in treating mental disorders and in programmed learning. Ghosh and Chattopadhyay used behaviour modification techniques when treating children with ADHD (Jarvis and Russell, 2002). The  Behaviourists’ approach has its’ strengths as it is scientific, their theories are supported by experiments. Behaviourism focuses on observable behaviour that can be measured (McLeod, 2007). On the other hand, behaviourism does not consider emotion and thinking. Watson denied the inheritance of capacity, talent, temperament and mental constitution (Collin et al, 2011, p.28). Not all human behaviour can be explained by operant conditioning, which is why Skinner’s ideas are no longer popular with many psychologists today. Behaviourism does not explain complex mental processes, for example that humans often learn by the observation others, not just by punishment and rewards. Furthermore, operant conditioning does not explain the aspects of how hormones and genetic predispositions affect and shape behaviour. However, because Pavlov and Watson successfully trained animals’ and children’s new behaviours through stimulus-response patterns, other researchers understood that if behaviour could be learned, it can also be unlearned. For example, based on that mechanism, Wolpe created treatments for ‘war neurosis’ and phobias (Collin et al, 2011, p.87). How are these two perspectives viewed and applied in psychology today? Behaviourism was always considered as a more scientific, objective approach as compared to psychodynamics. Modern psychology is based on much more empirical, objective evidence than before, due to the efforts of behaviourists. Behaviourists introduced modern methodology, which includes efficient ways to observe, collect data and carry out credible experiments. Watson demonstrated that human behaviour can be predicted, controlled and modified. Unlike behaviourism, Freud’s ideas were based on observation case histories rather than on experimental research. Behaviourism and psychodynamics are similar in their rejection to free will (McLeod, 2007) and their belief that everyone is born ‘tabula rasa’, or as a blank slate (Collin et al, 2011, p.29). Despite this, behaviourists criticised psychoanalysts and vice versa. Freud criticised behaviourism as it did not consider the unconscious. However, Wats on criticised Freud’s idea of unconscious as not provable, because it is unconscious and therefore difficult to access. (Collin et al, 2011, p.94) On the other hand, some of Watson’s methods are now dismissed as unethical. For example, Watson advocated unemotional parenting, which he thought would be beneficial to  children, but later he was largely criticised for his ideas, even by the mother of his own children. Watson grew up with an alcoholic father, and was not shown much attention as a child. Consequently, Watson did not have much empathy to children himself. Virginia Satire later stressed the importance of affection and compassion in creating a healthy family and shaping a successful person (Collin et al, 2011, p.146). Also, behaviourism does not recognise a difference between animals and humans. In contrast, due to Freud, more than 22 different schools of psychoanalysis have evolved from his method. It may be argued now that Freud’s theories were not as scientific as the behaviourist approach, but nobody else influenced 20th century psychotherapy in general as much as he did. Freud started what is now called ‘talking therapies’ (Collin et al, 2011, p.99) For example, Freud’s ideas influenced cognitive therapy and humanistic psychotherapy (Collin et al, 2011, p.91). By the mid-20th century both behaviourism and psychodynamics were being critically examined. Finally, at the end of the 20th century, after all the criticism and controversy, the best of psychodynamics and behaviourism joined together and gave birth to Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT). It happened when Wolpe’s behavioural therapy merged with Beck’s cognitive therapy. There is strong empirical evidence for the success of CBT as compared with classical psychoanalysis (Collin et al, 2011, p.176). CBT is widely used today for the treatment of different anxiety and mood disorders (Mà ¥nsson et al, 2013). To conclude, it would be fair to say that both the behaviourism and psychodynamic perspectives have had a vast influence on modern Psychology.